Chapter 16 · Exchange rates and the balance of payments
Managed exchange-rate system
Explore a managed exchange rate with an intervention band. Explain how market forces operate within the band and when the central bank intervenes.
The economic idea
The exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. The vertical-axis quotation matters: when it shows foreign currency per unit of domestic currency, an upward movement is an appreciation and a downward movement is a depreciation.
Demand for the domestic currency arises when foreigners purchase domestic exports, services or assets and when residents convert foreign-currency receipts. Supply arises when residents purchase imports, travel abroad or acquire foreign assets and when foreign investors repatriate funds.
In a floating system, the market rate adjusts to equate currency demand and supply. Appreciation is a market-driven increase in the currency’s value and depreciation a market-driven decrease. Revaluation and devaluation are official changes to a fixed exchange-rate parity.
A fixed exchange-rate system commits the monetary authority to an official rate or narrow parity. It must offset excess private demand or supply using foreign-exchange reserves, monetary policy, exchange controls or an eventual parity change.
A managed float allows market movement but uses intervention to influence the level or volatility of the rate. Sterilisation is a separate domestic transaction designed to offset the intervention’s effect on the monetary base.
Reading the floating outcome against Lower intervention limit and Upper intervention limit
“Quantity of domestic currency” is measured horizontally and records currency exchanged during a period.
“Exchange rate (foreign currency per domestic currency)” is measured vertically. With foreign currency per unit of domestic currency on this axis, a higher rate means one unit of domestic currency buys more foreign currency: it appreciates.
“D₁” slopes downward because a more expensive domestic currency makes domestic goods and assets dearer to foreign buyers; “S” slopes upward because foreign goods and assets become cheaper to residents as the domestic currency strengthens.
The market benchmark: E₁
“D₁” and “S” intersect at “E₁”. At “ER₁”, planned currency purchases equal planned sales at “Q₁”, so there is no pressure for the rate to change.
The new market position: E₂
At the defended rate, quantity demanded of domestic currency “Qd” exceeds quantity supplied “Qs”. To prevent appreciation, the central bank sells domestic currency and buys foreign currency, adding to its reserves. The amount of domestic currency sold equals the horizontal difference between those quantities.
From the nominal rate to the wider economy
An appreciation lowers the domestic-currency price of imports and raises the foreign-currency price of exports, ceteris paribus. It may reduce imported inflation and net exports, but the outcome depends on invoicing, elasticities, contracts, foreign income and firms’ pricing behaviour.
Distinguish movement within the band from intervention
A market rate inside “Lower intervention limit” and “Upper intervention limit” can move without a reserve transaction in this model. When pressure would take it beyond a boundary, identify the imbalance at that boundary and explain the currency purchase or sale needed to offset it.
A managed rate is not fixed at every moment. The band simplifies a policy that may also use interest rates or communication, and an announced boundary does not establish that the central bank can defend it indefinitely.
How to derive the required policy response
Locate the market-clearing intersection of “D₁” and “S”.
Compare the floating rate with “Lower intervention limit” and “Upper intervention limit”.
At the defended rate, read “Qd” on currency demand and “Qs” on currency supply.
Then evaluate reserve adequacy, monetary effects, policy credibility, capital mobility and consistency with domestic inflation and output objectives.
Common mistakes to avoid
- Do not name appreciation or depreciation until you have read the quotation on the vertical axis.
- An increase in exports shifts demand for the exporting country’s currency; it does not shift currency supply.
- A change in the exchange rate causes movement along currency demand and supply. A change in exports, imports, interest expectations or confidence shifts a schedule.
- Under a fixed rate, the market imbalance does not disappear by assumption; the central bank or another policy must absorb it.
- A nominal depreciation does not guarantee improved net exports, higher real GDP or a lower current-account deficit.
How to draw this diagram
- Title the diagram “Managed exchange-rate system”. Label the horizontal axis “Quantity of domestic currency” and the vertical axis “Exchange rate (foreign currency per domestic currency)”.
- Draw D₁ first and label it clearly.
- Draw S next and label it clearly.
- Draw D₂ next and label it clearly.
- Draw Lower intervention limit next and label it clearly.
- Draw Upper intervention limit next and label it clearly.
- Mark each relevant intersection and distinguish the initial, market and socially optimum or policy outcomes where applicable.
- Add the relevant guide lines and shade the economic area only after its boundaries are established.
- Check that every symbol used in the explanation appears on the diagram and add arrows showing the direction of change.
Assumptions and limitations
- The two-curve diagram combines heterogeneous spot, forward, trade and financial transactions into one market.
- Expectations can change continuously and may move capital flows before trade quantities respond.
- The model holds foreign income, domestic income, interest rates, inflation and policy constant unless one is the stated cause of a shift.
- Official intervention may be sterilised and can be reinforced by interest-rate policy, controls or communication not shown on the graph.
- Nominal exchange-rate changes need not equal real exchange-rate changes when domestic and foreign prices also change.